Genealogies of the “rule of virtue” in Chinese law: Some linguistic remarks on the character 德 (dé)

This article examines the historical and contemporary meanings of the character 德 (dé) in Chinese legal and political thought, focusing on its role in the idea of 德治 (dézhì), or “rule of virtue.” Through linguistic, palaeographic, and conceptual analysis, it reconstructs the genealogy of 德 from its early appearances in Western Zhou bronze inscriptions to its development in classical Chinese philosophy and modern Chinese law. The article argues that 德 originally combined public, political, ritual, and moral dimensions, functioning as both a source of sovereign legitimacy and a practical standard of governance. In Confucian thought, 德 became a comprehensive ethical and pedagogical paradigm, closely linked to ritual order and social harmony. The article then explores how contemporary Chinese law, especially under Xi Jinping, has revived and transformed the rule of virtue by integrating moral standards into legal governance, Party supervision, civil law, company law, and oversight mechanisms. It suggests that this revival reflects both continuity with Chinese legal tradition and a politically oriented attempt to place morality under the interpretive authority of the Communist Party. Ultimately, the article shows how contemporary Chinese law challenges Western assumptions about the autonomy of law from morality and politics.