Varieties of engagement in the Indo-Pacific: A comparison of the EU Big Four

This paper compares the Indo-Pacific policies of four EU Member States with significant trade and investment interests and a military presence in the region—namely France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Italy. Using a pluralist theoretical framework, it situates each country along a continuum between ideal-typical realism and liberalism: France as a defensive realist, the Netherlands as a moderately assertive mercantilist, Germany as closer to a strategic multilateralist, and Italy as a reactive pragmatist. The heuristic value of this framework lies in its ability to capture persistent differences among the four countries’ Indo-Pacific policies that are expected to shape debate within the Union. At the same time, this classification accounts for emerging areas of convergence and ambiguity resulting from changes in international and domestic politics. On this basis, the paper draws implications for the European Union’s capacity to project power, coordinate action, and enhance its presence in the region.