Evaluating the benefits of green exercise: A randomized controlled trial in natural and built environments assessed for their restorative properties

Exercising in natural environments (green exercise, GE) has been shown to offer significant physiological and psychological health benefits compared to urban or indoor environments. This study evaluated the restorative effects of a 1-h light-to-moderate intensity exercise session across three environments: natural (G), urban (U), and indoor (I). Using a randomized crossover design, 25 male participants (M = 26.3, SD = 4.3) completed a 1-h walk at 6 km/h in each setting. Psychological outcomes, including perceived restorativeness (PRS), restoration (ROS), emotional states, enjoyment, and behavioral intentions, were assessed with validated questionnaires. Physiological measures (cortisol, heart rate, heart rate variability) were collected pre- and post-intervention. Results showed that G environment consistently elicited greater relaxation, higher positive emotions, and lower negative emotions compared to U and I. Restoration outcomes (PRS, ROS), enjoyment and intentions to exercise were significantly higher in G, while perceived exertion was lower in G compared to I. Physiologically, cortisol levels, heart rate, and heart rate variability differed by environment, with G promoting a more favorable recovery profile than U and I. No interaction effects were observed for physiological measures, suggesting consistent recovery patterns over time. These findings highlight the restorative and stress-relieving potential of GE, emphasizing its role in enhancing mental well-being and supporting physical activity adherence. The study underscores the importance of natural environments as a resource for promoting health and well-being, while also identifying the need for further research to clarify the nuanced differences between urban and natural settings.