Conclusion – understanding European anti-racisms

There are a number of manifestations of racism, xenophobia and discrimination present in Europe, which have prompted the formation and mobilisation of anti-racist associations. Moreover, there are a range of other factors that have shaped the development of the movement across the EU. A range of national factors have served to shape the form and effectiveness of such anti-racist associations. National specificity in combating racism remains notable, and within each national context, the range of actors involved is a heterogeneous one. Thus anti-racist activities range from spontaneous ad-hoc initiatives on racist incidents, welfare-orientated groups offering social services and protection in local neighbourhoods, leftist groups targeting ‘state-racism’ linked to the discriminatory effects of immigration control, trade unions fighting for labour protection up to broad coalitions between government and civil society, prominent individual advocates and government sponsored agencies. Strategies also vary, incorporating lobbying, organisation of demonstrations, petitions and media and public awareness campaigns.