Comfort and Design in the Built Environment: Multisensory, Participatory, and Adaptive Strategies

The concept of comfort in the built environment is undergoing a fundamental redefinition, increasingly framed as a multisensory, adaptive, and participatory phenomenon rather than a static outcome derived from prescriptive standards. This paper explores emerging research and methodological approaches that challenge technocratic and reductionist paradigms, proposing instead a human-centred perspective grounded in experiential quality, environmental responsiveness, and user engagement. Drawing upon recent literature and cross-disciplinary studies, the paper examines the integration of thermal, visual, acoustic, and air quality domains with subjective feedback mechanisms and real-time environmental sensing. These hybrid methodologies enable a more nuanced and responsive design process, addressing the complexity of individual and collective needs across diverse building types and climatic conditions. Smart technologies such as BIM, Digital Twins, IoT-based monitoring systems, and data-driven control strategies are presented as pivotal tools for achieving dynamic comfort regulation, energy optimisation, and behavioural alignment. The discussion extends to outdoor environments, where comfort is increasingly conceptualised through the integration of sensory stimuli, climate-resilient urban interventions, and participatory tools such as climate walks and co-design platforms. Case studies demonstrate how adaptive and inclusive design strategies contribute to improved environmental justice, social cohesion, and spatial well-being. Special attention is given to the role of doctoral research in advancing this paradigm shift. Recent investigations demonstrate how early-career contributions are catalysing new models of comfort design that are empirical, co-creative, and responsive to emerging societal and environmental challenges. The study concludes by advocating for a systemic and transdisciplinary approach to comfort that supports healthier, more inclusive, and emotionally resonant built environments.